Jump to content

TNT equivalent

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Tonne of TNT)
"Kiloton" redirects here. For the similarly named weight measurements, see Tonne.

TNT equivalent
The explosion from a 14-kiloton nuclear test at the Nevada Test Site, in 1951
General information
Unit systemNon-standard
Unit ofEnergy
Symbolt, ton of TNT
Conversions
1 t in ...... is equal to ...
   SI base units   ≈ 4.184 gigajoules
   CGS   109 calories

TNT equivalent is a convention for expressing energy, typically used to describe the energy released in an explosion. The ton of TNT is a unit of energy defined by convention to be 4.184 gigajoules (1 gigacalorie),[1] which is the approximate energy released in the detonation of a metric ton (1,000 kilograms) of TNT. In other words, for each gram of TNT exploded, 4.184 kilojoules (or 4184 joules) of energy are released.

This convention intends to compare the destructiveness of an event with that of conventional explosive materials, of which TNT is a typical example, although other conventional explosives such as dynamite contain more energy.

Kiloton and megaton

[edit]

The "kiloton (of TNT equivalent)" is a unit of energy equal to 4.184 terajoules (4.184×1012 J).[2]

The "megaton (of TNT equivalent)" is a unit of energy equal to 4.184 petajoules (4.184×1015 J).[3]

The kiloton and megaton of TNT equivalent have traditionally been used to describe the energy output, and hence the destructive power, of a nuclear weapon. The TNT equivalent appears in various nuclear weapon control treaties, and has been used to characterize the energy released in asteroid impacts.[4]

Historical derivation of the value

[edit]

Alternative values for TNT equivalency can be calculated according to which property is being compared and when in the two detonation processes the values are measured.[5][6][7][8]

Where for example the comparison is by energy yield, an explosive's energy is normally expressed for chemical purposes as the thermodynamic work produced by its detonation. For TNT this has been accurately measured as 4,686 J/g from a large sample of air blast experiments, and theoretically calculated to be 4,853 J/g.[9]

However even on this basis, comparing the actual energy yields of a large nuclear device and an explosion of TNT can be slightly inaccurate. Small TNT explosions, especially in the open, don't tend to burn the carbon-particle and hydrocarbon products of the explosion. Gas-expansion and pressure-change effects tend to "freeze" the burn rapidly. A large open explosion of TNT may maintain fireball temperatures high enough so that some of those products do burn up with atmospheric oxygen.[10]

Such differences can be substantial. For safety purposes a range as wide as 2,673–6,702 J has been stated for a gram of TNT upon explosion.[11]

Thus one can state that a nuclear bomb has a yield of 15 kt (6.3×1013 J), but the explosion of an actual 15,000 ton pile of TNT may yield (for example) 8×1013 J due to additional carbon/hydrocarbon oxidation not present with small open-air charges.[10]

These complications have been sidestepped by convention. The energy released by one gram of TNT was arbitrarily defined as a matter of convention to be 4,184 J,[12] which is exactly one kilocalorie.

A kiloton of TNT can be visualized as a cube of TNT 8.46 metres (27.8 ft) on a side.

Grams TNT Symbol Tons TNT Symbol Energy [joules] Energy [Wh] Corresponding mass loss[a]
milligram of TNT mg nanoton of TNT nt 4.184 J or 4.184 joules 1.162 mWh 46.55 fg
gram of TNT g microton of TNT μt 4.184×103 J or 4.184 kilojoules 1.162 Wh 46.55 pg
kilogram of TNT kg milliton of TNT mt 4.184×106 J or 4.184 megajoules 1.162 kWh 46.55 ng
megagram of TNT Mg ton of TNT t 4.184×109 J or 4.184 gigajoules 1.162 MWh 46.55 μg
gigagram of TNT Gg kiloton of TNT kt 4.184×1012 J or 4.184 terajoules 1.162 GWh 46.55 mg
teragram of TNT Tg megaton of TNT Mt 4.184×1015 J or 4.184 petajoules 1.162 TWh 46.55 g
petagram of TNT Pg gigaton of TNT Gt 4.184×1018 J or 4.184 exajoules 1.162 PWh 46.55 kg

Conversion to other units

[edit]

1 ton of TNT equivalent is approximately:

Examples

[edit]
Further information: Orders of magnitude (energy)
Energy Description
Megatons of TNT Watt-hours [Wh]
1×10−12 1.162 Wh ≈ 1 food calorie (large calorie, kcal), which is the approximate amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water by one degree Celsius at a pressure of one atmosphere.
1×10−9 1.162 kWh Under controlled conditions one kilogram of TNT can destroy (or even obliterate) a small vehicle.
4.8×10−9 5.6 kWh The energy to burn 1 kilogram of wood.[18]
1×10−8 11.62 kWh The approximate radiant heat energy released during 3-phase, 600 V, 100 kA arcing fault in a 0.5 m × 0.5 m × 0.5 m (20 in × 20 in × 20 in) compartment within a 1-second period.[further explanation needed][citation needed]
1.2×10−8 13.94 kWh Amount of TNT used (12 kg) in Coptic church explosion in Cairo, Egypt on December 11, 2016 that left 29 dead and 47 injured[19]
1.9×10−6 2.90 MWh The television show MythBusters used 2.5 tons of ANFO to make "homemade" diamonds. (Episode 116.)
2.4×10−7–2.4×10−6 280–2,800 kWh The energy output released by an average lightning discharge.[20]
(1–44)×10−6 1.16–51.14 MWh Conventional bombs yield from less than one ton to FOAB's 44 tons. The yield of a Tomahawk cruise missile is equivalent to 500 kg of TNT.[21]
4.54×10−4 581 MWh A real 0.454-kiloton-of-TNT (1.90 TJ) charge at Operation Sailor Hat. If the charge were a full sphere, it would be 1 kiloton of TNT (4.2 TJ).
454 tons of TNT (5 by 10 m (17 by 34 ft)) awaiting detonation at Operation Sailor Hat.
1.8×10−3 2.088 GWh Estimated yield of the Beirut explosion of 2,750 tons of ammonium nitrate[22] that killed initially 137 at and near a Lebanese port at 6 p.m. local time Tuesday August 4, 2020.[23] An independent study by experts from the Blast and Impact Research Group at the University of Sheffield predicts the best estimate of the yield of Beirut explosion to be 0.5 kilotons of TNT and the reasonable bound estimate as 1.12 kilotons of TNT.[24]
(1–2)×10−3 1.16–2.32 GWh Estimated yield of the Oppau explosion that killed more than 500 at a German fertilizer factory in 1921.
2.3×10−3 2.67 GWh Amount of solar energy falling on 4,000 m2 (1 acre) of land in a year is 9.5 TJ (2,650 MWh) (an average over the Earth's surface).[25]
2.9×10−3 3.4 GWh The Halifax Explosion in 1917 was the accidental detonation of 200 tons of TNT and 2,300 tons of Picric acid[26]
3.2×10−3 3.6 GWh The Operation Big Bang on April 18, 1947, blasted the bunkers on Heligoland. It accumulated 6700 metric tons of surplus World War II ammunition placed in various locations around the island and set off. The energy released was 1.3×1013 J, or about 3.2 kilotons of TNT equivalent.[27]
4×10−3 9.3 GWh Minor Scale, a 1985 United States conventional explosion, using 4,744 tons of ANFO explosive to provide a scaled equivalent airblast of an eight kiloton (33.44 TJ) nuclear device,[28] is believed to be the largest planned detonation of conventional explosives in history.
(1.5–2)×10−2 17.4–23.2 GWh The Little Boy atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, exploded with an energy of about 15 kilotons of TNT (63 TJ) killing between 90,000 and 166,000 people,[29] and the Fat Man atomic bomb dropped on Nagasaki on August 9, 1945, exploded with an energy of about 20 kilotons of TNT (84 TJ) killing over 60,000.[29] The modern nuclear weapons in the United States arsenal range in yield from 0.3 kt (1.3 TJ) to 1.2 Mt (5.0 PJ) equivalent, for the B83 strategic bomb.
>2.4×10−1 280 GWh The typical energy yield of severe thunderstorms.[30]
1.5×10−5 – 6×10−1 20 MWh – 700 GWh The estimated kinetic energy of tornados.[31]
1 1.16 TWh The energy contained in one megaton of TNT (4.2 PJ) is enough to power the average American household for 103,000 years.[32] The 30 Mt (130 PJ) estimated upper limit blast power of the Tunguska event could power the same average home for more than 3,100,000 years. The energy of that blast could power the entire United States for 3.27 days.[33]
8.6 10 TWh The energy output that would be released by a typical tropical cyclone in one minute, primarily from water condensation. Winds constitute 0.25% of that energy.[34]
16 18.6 TWh The approximate radiated surface energy released in a magnitude 8 earthquake.[35]
21.5 25 TWh The complete conversion of 1 kg of matter into pure energy would yield the theoretical maximum (E = mc2) of 89.8 petajoules, which is equivalent to 21.5 megatons of TNT. No such method of total conversion as combining 500 grams of matter with 500 grams of antimatter has yet been achieved. In the event of proton–antiproton annihilation, approximately 50% of the released energy will escape in the form of neutrinos, which are almost undetectable.[36] Electron–positron annihilation events emit their energy entirely as gamma rays.
24 28 TWh Approximate total yield of the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens.[37]
26.3 30.6 TWh Energy released by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake.[38]
An animation of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami
45 53 TWh The energy released in the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami was over 200,000 times the surface energy and was calculated by the USGS at 1.9×1017 joules,[39][40] slightly less than the 2004 Indian Ocean quake. It was estimated at a moment magnitude of 9.0–9.1.
The damage caused by the 2011 Tōhoku tsunami
50–56 58 TWh The Soviet Union developed a prototype thermonuclear device, nicknamed the Tsar Bomba, which was tested at 50–56 Mt (210–230 PJ), but had a maximum theoretical design yield of 100 Mt (420 PJ).[41] The effective destructive potential of such a weapon varies greatly, depending on such conditions as the altitude at which it is detonated, the characteristics of the target, the terrain, and the physical landscape upon which it is detonated.
61 70.9 TWh The energy released by the 2022 Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai volcanic eruption, in the southern Pacific Ocean, is estimated to have been equivalent to 61 Megatons of TNT.[42]
84 97.04 TWh The solar irradiance on Earth every second.[b]
200 230 TWh The total energy released by the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa in the Dutch East Indies (present-day Indonesia).[43]
540 630 TWh The total energy produced worldwide by all nuclear testing and combat usage combined, from the 1940s to the present, is about 540 megatons.
1,460 1.69 PWh The total global nuclear arsenal is about 15,000 nuclear warheads[44][45][46] with a destructive capacity of around 1460 megatons[47][48][49][50] or 1.46 gigatons (1,460 million tons) of TNT. This is the equivalent of 6.11×1018 joules of energy
2,680[dubious – discuss] 3 PWh The energy yield of the 1960 Valdivia earthquake, was estimated at a moment magnitude of 9.4–9.6. This is the most powerful earthquake recorded in history.[51][52]
The aftermath of the 1960 Valdivia earthquake.
2,870 3.34 PWh The energy released by a hurricane per day during condensation.[53]
33,000 38.53 PWh The total energy released by the 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the island of Sumbawa in Indonesia. Yielded the equivalent of 2.2 million Little Boys (the first atomic bomb to drop on Japan) or one-quarter of the entire world's annual energy consumption.[54] This eruption was 4-10 times more destructive than the 1883 Krakatoa eruption.[55]
240,000 280 PWh The approximate total yield of the super-eruption of the La Garita Caldera is 10,000 times more powerful than the 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption.[56] It was the second most energetic event to have occurred on Earth since the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 66 million years ago.
A photo of the La Garita Caldera
301,000 350 PWh The total solar irradiance energy received by Earth in the upper atmosphere per hour.[c][d]
875,000 1.02 EWh Approximate yield of the last eruption of the Yellowstone supervolcano.[57]
Image of the Yellowstone supervolcano.
3.61×106 4.2 EWh The solar irradiance of the Sun every 12 hours.[c][e]
6×106 7 EWh The estimated energy at impact when the largest fragment of Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 struck Jupiter is equivalent to 6 million megatons (6 trillion tons) of TNT.[58]
The impact site of the Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9
7.2×107 116 EWh Estimates in 2010 show that the kinetic energy of the Chicxulub impact event yielded 72 teratons of TNT equivalent (1 teraton of TNT equals 106 megatons of TNT) which caused the K-Pg extinction event, wiping out 75% of all species on Earth.[59][60] This is far more destructive than any natural disaster recorded in history. Such an event would've caused global volcanism, earthquakes, megatsunamis, and global climate change.[59][61][62][63][64]
The animation of the Chicxulub impact.
>2.4×1010 >28 ZWh The impact energy of Archean asteroids.[65]
9.1×1010 106 ZWh The total energy output of the Sun per second.[66]
2.4×1011 280 ZWh The kinetic energy of the Caloris Planitia impactor.[67]
The photo of the Caloris Planitia on Mercury. Taken by the MESSENGER orbiter.
5.972×1015 6.94 RWh The explosive energy of a quantity of TNT of the mass of Earth.[68]
7.89×1015 9.17 RWh Total solar output in all directions per day.[69]
1.98×1021 2.3×1033 Wh The explosive energy of a quantity of TNT of the mass of the Sun.[70]
(2.4–4.8)×1028 (2.8–5.6)×1040 Wh A type Ia supernova explosion gives off 1–2×1044 joules of energy, which is about 2.4–4.8 hundred billion yottatons (24–48 octillion (2.4–4.8×1028) megatons) of TNT, equivalent to the explosive force of a quantity of TNT over a trillion (1012) times the mass of the planet Earth. This is the astrophysical standard candle used to determine galactic distances.[71]
(2.4–4.8)×1030 (2.8–5.6)×1042 Wh The largest type of supernova observed, gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) release more than 1046 joules of energy.[72]
1.3×1032 1.5×1044 Wh A merger of two black holes, resulting in the first observation of gravitational waves, released 5.3×1047 joules[73]
9.6×1053 1.12×1066 Wh Estimated mass-energy of the observable universe.[74]

Relative effectiveness factor

[edit]

The relative effectiveness factor (RE factor) relates an explosive's demolition power to that of TNT, in units of the TNT equivalent/kg (TNTe/kg). The RE factor is the relative mass of TNT to which an explosive is equivalent: The greater the RE, the more powerful the explosive.

This enables engineers to determine the proper masses of different explosives when applying blasting formulas developed specifically for TNT. For example, if a timber-cutting formula calls for a charge of 1 kg of TNT, then based on octanitrocubane's RE factor of 2.38, it would take only 1.0/2.38 (or 0.42) kg of it to do the same job. Using PETN, engineers would need 1.0/1.66 (or 0.60) kg to obtain the same effects as 1 kg of TNT. With ANFO or ammonium nitrate, they would require 1.0/0.74 (or 1.35) kg or 1.0/0.32 (or 3.125) kg, respectively.

Calculating a single RE factor for an explosive is, however, impossible. It depends on the specific case or use. Given a pair of explosives, one can produce 2× the shockwave output (this depends on the distance of measuring instruments) but the difference in direct metal cutting ability may be 4× higher for one type of metal and 7× higher for another type of metal. The relative differences between two explosives with shaped charges will be even greater. The table below should be taken as an example and not as a precise source of data.

Some relative effectiveness factor examples[citation needed]
Explosive, grade Density
(g/ml) 		Detonation
vel. (m/s) 		Relative
effectiveness
Ammonium nitrate (AN + <0.5% H2O) 0.88 2,700[75] 0.32[76][77]
Mercury(II) fulminate 4.42 4,250 0.51[78]
Black powder (75% KNO3 + 19% C + 6% S, ancient low explosive) 1.65 400 0.55[79]
Hexamine dinitrate (HDN) 1.30 5,070 0.60
Dinitrobenzene (DNB) 1.50 6,025 0.60
HMTD (hexamine peroxide) 0.88 4,520 0.74
ANFO (94% AN + 6% fuel oil) 0.92 4,200 0.74
Urea nitrate 1.67 4,700 0.77
TATP (acetone peroxide) 1.18 5,300 0.80
Tovex Extra (AN water gel) commercial product 1.33 5,690 0.80
Hydromite 600 (AN water emulsion) commercial product 1.24 5,550 0.80
ANNMAL (66% AN + 25% NM + 5% Al + 3% C + 1% TETA) 1.16 5,360 0.87
Amatol (50% TNT + 50% AN) 1.50 6,290 0.91
Nitroguanidine 1.32 6,750 0.95
Trinitrotoluene (TNT) 1.60 6,900 1.00
Hexanitrostilbene (HNS) 1.70 7,080 1.05
Nitrourea 1.45 6,860 1.05
Tritonal (80% TNT + 20% aluminium)[f] 1.70 6,650 1.05
Nickel hydrazine nitrate (NHN) 1.70 7,000 1.05
Amatol (80% TNT + 20% AN) 1.55 6,570 1.10
Nitrocellulose (13.5% N, NC; AKA guncotton) 1.40 6,400 1.10
Nitromethane (NM) 1.13 6,360 1.10
PBXW-126 (22% NTO, 20% RDX, 20% AP, 26% Al, 12% PU's system)[f] 1.80 6,450 1.10
Diethylene glycol dinitrate (DEGDN) 1.38 6,610 1.17
PBXIH-135 EB (42% HMX, 33% Al, 25% PCP-TMETN's system)[f] 1.81 7,060 1.17
PBXN-109 (64% RDX, 20% Al, 16% HTPB's system)[f] 1.68 7,450 1.17
Triaminotrinitrobenzene (TATB) 1.80 7,550 1.17
Picric acid (TNP) 1.71 7,350 1.17
Trinitrobenzene (TNB) 1.60 7,300 1.20
Tetrytol (70% tetryl + 30% TNT) 1.60 7,370 1.20
Dynamite, Nobel's (75% NG + 23% diatomite) 1.48 7,200 1.25
Tetryl 1.71 7,770 1.25
Torpex (aka HBX, 41% RDX + 40% TNT + 18% Al + 1% wax)[f] 1.80 7,440 1.30
Composition B (63% RDX + 36% TNT + 1% wax) 1.72 7,840 1.33
Composition C-3 (78% RDX) 1.60 7,630 1.33
Composition C-4 (91% RDX) 1.59 8,040 1.34
Pentolite (56% PETN + 44% TNT) 1.66 7,520 1.33
Semtex 1A (76% PETN + 6% RDX) 1.55 7,670 1.35
Hexal (76% RDX + 20% Al + 4% wax)[f] 1.79 7,640 1.35
RISAL P (50% IPN + 28% RDX + 15% Al + 4% Mg + 1% Zr + 2% NC)[f] 1.39 5,980 1.40
Hydrazine nitrate 1.59 8,500 1.42
Mixture: 24% nitrobenzene + 76% TNM 1.48 8,060 1.50
Mixture: 30% nitrobenzene + 70% nitrogen tetroxide 1.39 8,290 1.50
Nitroglycerin (NG) 1.59 7,700 1.54
Methyl nitrate (MN) 1.21 7,900 1.54
Octol (80% HMX + 19% TNT + 1% DNT) 1.83 8,690 1.54
Nitrotriazolon (NTO) 1.87 8,120 1.60
DADNE (1,1-diamino-2,2-dinitroethene, FOX-7) 1.77 8,330 1.60
Gelignite (92% NG + 7% nitrocellulose) 1.60 7,970 1.60
Plastics Gel® (in toothpaste tube: 45% PETN + 45% NG + 5% DEGDN + 4% NC) 1.51 7,940 1.60
Composition A-5 (98% RDX + 2% stearic acid) 1.65 8,470 1.60
Erythritol tetranitrate (ETN) 1.72 8,206 1.60
Hexogen (RDX) 1.78 8,600 1.60
PBXW-11 (96% HMX, 1% HyTemp, 3% DOA) 1.81 8,720 1.60
Penthrite (PETN) 1.77 8,400 1.66
Ethylene glycol dinitrate (EGDN) 1.49 8,300 1.66
MEDINA (Methylene dinitroamine)[80][81] 1.65 8,700 1.70
Trinitroazetidine (TNAZ) 1.85 9,597 1.70
Octogen (HMX grade B) 1.86 9,100 1.70
Hexanitrobenzene (HNB) 1.97 9,340 1.80
Hexanitrohexaazaisowurtzitane (HNIW; AKA CL-20) 1.97 9,500 1.90
DDF (4,4’-Dinitro-3,3’-diazenofuroxan) 1.98 10,000 1.95
Heptanitrocubane (HNC)[g] 1.92 9,200 N/A
Octanitrocubane (ONC) 1.95 10,600 2.38
Octaazacubane (OAC)[g] 2.69 15,000 >5.00

Nuclear examples

[edit]
Nuclear weapons and the most powerful non-nuclear weapon examples
Weapon Total yield
(kilotons of TNT) 		Mass
(kg) 		Relative
effectiveness
GBU-57 bomb (Massive Ordnance Penetrator, MOP) 0.0035 13,600 0.26
Grand Slam (Earthquake bomb, M110) 0.0065 9,900 0.66
Bomb used in Oklahoma City (ANFO based on racing fuel) 0.0018 2,300 0.78
BLU-82 (Daisy Cutter) 0.0075 6,800 1.10
MOAB (non-nuclear bomb, GBU-43) 0.011 9,800 1.13
FOAB (advanced thermobaric bomb, ATBIP) 0.044 9,100 4.83
W54, Mk-54 (Davy Crockett) 0.022 23 1,000
Little Boy (dropped on Hiroshima) A-bomb 15 4,400 4,000
Fat Man (dropped on Nagasaki) A-bomb 20 4,600 4,500
W54, B54 (SADM) 1.0 23 43,500
Classic (one-stage) fission A-bomb 22 420 50,000
Hypothetical suitcase nuke 2.5 31 80,000
Typical (two-stage) nuclear bomb 500–1000 650–1,120 900,000
W88 modern thermonuclear warhead (MIRV) 470 355 1,300,000
Tsar nuclear bomb (three-stage) 50,000–56,000 26,500 2,100,000
B53 nuclear bomb (two-stage) 9,000 4,050 2,200,000
Operation Dominic Housatonic[82][83][84] (two-stage) 9,960 3,239 3,042,400
W56 thermonuclear warhead 1,200 272–308 4,960,000
B41 nuclear bomb (three-stage) 25,000 4,850 5,100,000
Theoretical antimatter weapon 43,000 1 43,000,000,000

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Footnotes

[edit]
  1. ^ Mass–energy equivalence.
  2. ^ The solar constant of the sun is 1370 watts per square meter and Earth has a cross-sectional surface area of 2.6×1014 square meters.
  3. ^ a b The solar constant of the sun is 1370 watts per square meter and Earth has a cross-sectional surface area of 2.6×1014 square meters.
  4. ^ 1 hour is equivalent to 3600 seconds.
  5. ^ 1 day is equivalent to 86400 seconds.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g TBX (thermobaric explosives) or EBX (enhanced blast explosives), in a small, confined space, may have over twice the power of destruction. The total power of aluminized mixtures strictly depends on the condition of explosions.
  7. ^ a b Predicted values

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ "Tons (Explosives) to Gigajoules Conversion Calculator". unitconversion.org. Archived from the original on March 17, 2017. Retrieved January 6, 2016.
  2. ^ "Convert Megaton to Joule". www.unitconverters.net. Retrieved March 22, 2022.
  3. ^ "Convert Gigaton to Joule". www.unitconverters.net. Retrieved March 22, 2022.
  4. ^ "Joules to Megatons Conversion Calculator". unitconversion.org. Archived from the original on November 24, 2009. Retrieved November 23, 2009.
  5. ^ Sorin Bastea, Laurence E. Fried, Kurt R. Glaesemann, W. Michael Howard, P. Clark Souers, Peter A. Vitello, Cheetah 5.0 User's Manual, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 2007.
  6. ^ Maienschein, Jon L. (2002). Estimating equivalency of explosives through a thermochemical approach (PDF) (Technical report). Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. UCRL-JC-147683. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 21, 2016. Retrieved December 12, 2012.
  7. ^ Maienschein, Jon L. (2002). Tnt equivalency of different explosives – estimation for calculating load limits in heaf firing tanks (Technical report). Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. EMPE-02-22.
  8. ^ Cunningham, Bruce J. (2001). C-4/tnt equivalency (Technical report). Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. EMPE-01-81.
  9. ^ Cooper, Paul W. (1996). Explosives Engineering. New York: Wiley-VCH. p. 406. ISBN 978-0-471-18636-6.
  10. ^ a b Charles E. Needham (October 3, 2017). Blast Waves. Springer. p. 91. ISBN 978-3319653822. OCLC 1005353847. Archived from the original on December 26, 2018. Retrieved January 25, 2019.
  11. ^ "Blast effects of external explosions (Section 4.8. Limitations of the TNT equivalent method)". Archived from the original on August 10, 2016.
  12. ^ "Appendix B8 – Factors for Units Listed Alphabetically". July 2, 2009. Archived from the original on January 29, 2016. Retrieved March 29, 2007. In NIST SI Guide 2008
  13. ^ "Tons Of Tnt to Calories | Kyle's Converter". www.kylesconverter.com. Retrieved March 22, 2022.
  14. ^ "Convert tons of TNT to joules | energy conversion". convert-to.com. Retrieved March 22, 2022.
  15. ^ "Convert tons of TNT to BTU - British Thermal Unit | energy conversion". convert-to.com. Retrieved March 22, 2022.
  16. ^ "Convert tons of TNT to foot pounds | energy conversion". convert-to.com. Retrieved March 22, 2022.
  17. ^ "Tons Of Tnt to Kilowatt-hours | Kyle's Converter". www.kylesconverter.com. Retrieved March 22, 2022.
  18. ^ Timcheck, Jonathan (Fall 2017). "The Energy in Wildfires: The Western United States". large.stanford.edu. Archived from the original on January 17, 2018. Retrieved March 31, 2022.
  19. ^ "Botroseya church bombing death toll rises to 29 victims". Egypt Independent. February 4, 2017. Archived from the original on May 24, 2024. Retrieved June 8, 2024.
  20. ^ "How do Thunderstorms and Lightning Work?". www.thenakedscientists.com. March 6, 2007. Retrieved March 22, 2022.
  21. ^ Homer-Dixon, Thomas F (2002). The Ingenuity Gap. Knopf Doubleday Publishing. p. 249. ISBN 978-0-375-71328-6. Archived from the original on January 14, 2021. Retrieved November 7, 2020.
  22. ^ Fuwad, Ahamad (August 5, 2020). "Beirut Blast: How does yield of 2,750 tonnes of ammonium nitrate compare against Halifax explosion, Hiroshima bombing?". DNA India. Archived from the original on August 6, 2020. Retrieved August 7, 2020.
  23. ^ Staff, W. S. J. (August 6, 2020). "Beirut Explosion: What Happened in Lebanon and Everything Else You Need to Know". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Archived from the original on August 6, 2020. Retrieved August 7, 2020.
  24. ^ Rigby, S. E.; Lodge, T. J.; Alotaibi, S.; Barr, A. D.; Clarke, S. D.; Langdon, G. S.; Tyas, A. (September 22, 2020). "Preliminary yield estimation of the 2020 Beirut explosion using video footage from social media". Shock Waves. 30 (6): 671–675. Bibcode:2020ShWav..30..671R. doi:10.1007/s00193-020-00970-z. ISSN 1432-2153.
  25. ^ c=AU; co=Commonwealth of Australia; ou=Department of Sustainability, Environment. "Space Weather Services website". www.sws.bom.gov.au. Retrieved April 23, 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  26. ^ Ruffman, Alan; Howell, Colin (1994). Ground Zero: A Reassessment of the 1917 Explosion in Halifax Harbour. Nimbus Publishing. ISBN 978-1-55109-095-5.
  27. ^ Willmore, PL (1949). "Seismic Experiments on the North German Explosions, 1946 to 1947". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. 242 (843): 123–151. Bibcode:1949RSPTA.242..123W. doi:10.1098/rsta.1949.0007. ISSN 0080-4614. JSTOR 91443.
  28. ^ Tech Reps (1986). "Minor Scale Event, Test Execution Report" (PDF). Albuerque, NM. hdl:100.2/ADA269600.
  29. ^ a b "Hiroshima and Nagasaki: The Long Term Health Effects". K1 project. August 9, 2012. Archived from the original on July 23, 2015. Retrieved January 7, 2021.
  30. ^ Crook, Aaron (February 10, 2010). "The gathering storms". Cosmos. Archived from the original on April 4, 2012.
  31. ^ Fricker, Tyler; Elsner, James B. (July 1, 2015). "Kinetic Energy of Tornadoes in the United States". PLOS ONE. 10 (7): e0131090. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1031090F. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0131090. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4489157. PMID 26132830.
  32. ^ "Frequently Asked Questions – Electricity". United States Department of Energy. October 6, 2009. Archived from the original on November 23, 2010. Retrieved October 21, 2009. (Calculated from 2007 value of 936 kWh monthly usage)
  33. ^ "Country Comparison :: Electricity – consumption". The World Factbook. CIA. Archived from the original on January 28, 2012. Retrieved October 22, 2009. (Calculated from 2007 value of 3,892,000,000,000 kWh annual usage)
  34. ^ "NOAA FAQ: How much energy does a hurricane release?". National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration. August 2001. Archived from the original on November 2, 2017. Retrieved June 30, 2009. cites 6E14 watts continuous.
  35. ^ "How much energy does an earthquake release?". Volcano Discovery. June 12, 2023.
  36. ^ Borowski, Stanley K. (March 1996). Comparison of Fusion/Antiproton Propulsion systems. 23rd Joint Propulsion Conference. NASA Glenn Research Center. doi:10.2514/6.1987-1814. hdl:2060/19960020441.
  37. ^ "Mount St. Helens – From the 1980 Eruption to 2000, Fact Sheet 036-00". pubs.usgs.gov. Archived from the original on May 12, 2013. Retrieved April 23, 2022.
  38. ^ "USGS Earthquake Hazards Program: Energy and Broadband Solution: Off W Coast of Northern Sumatra". April 4, 2010. Archived from the original on April 4, 2010. Retrieved February 10, 2023.
  39. ^ "USGS.gov: USGS WPhase Moment Solution". Earthquake.usgs.gov. Archived from the original on March 14, 2011. Retrieved March 13, 2011.
  40. ^ "USGS Energy and Broadband Solution". March 16, 2011. Archived from the original on March 16, 2011. Retrieved February 10, 2023.
  41. ^ See Currently deployed U.S. nuclear weapon yields Archived September 7, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, Complete List of All U.S. Nuclear Weapons Archived December 16, 2008, at the Wayback Machine, Tsar Bomba Archived June 17, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, all from Carey Sublette's Nuclear Weapon Archive.
  42. ^ Díaz, J. S.; Rigby, S. E. (August 9, 2022). "Energetic output of the 2022 Hunga Tonga–Hunga Ha'apai volcanic eruption from pressure measurements". Shock Waves. 32 (6): 553–561. Bibcode:2022ShWav..32..553D. doi:10.1007/s00193-022-01092-4. ISSN 1432-2153. S2CID 251480018.
  43. ^ "The eruption of Krakatoa, August 27, 1883". Commonwealth of Australia 2012, Bureau of Meteorology. April 5, 2012. Archived from the original on March 18, 2016. Retrieved February 23, 2022.
  44. ^ "Status of World Nuclear Forces". fas.org. Archived from the original on May 8, 2017. Retrieved May 4, 2017.
  45. ^ "Nuclear Weapons: Who Has What at a Glance". armscontrol.org. Archived from the original on January 24, 2018. Retrieved May 4, 2017.
  46. ^ "Global nuclear weapons: downsizing but modernizing". Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. June 13, 2016. Archived from the original on October 7, 2016. Retrieved May 4, 2017.
  47. ^ Kristensen, Hans M.; Norris, Robert S. (May 3, 2016). "Russian nuclear forces, 2016". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 72 (3): 125–134. Bibcode:2016BuAtS..72c.125K. doi:10.1080/00963402.2016.1170359.
  48. ^ Kristensen, Hans M; Norris, Robert S (2015). "US nuclear forces, 2015". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 71 (2): 107. Bibcode:2015BuAtS..71b.107K. doi:10.1177/0096340215571913. S2CID 145260117.
  49. ^ "Minimize Harm and Security Risks of Nuclear Energy". Archived from the original on September 24, 2014. Retrieved May 4, 2017.
  50. ^ Kristensen, Hans M; Norris, Robert S (2015). "Chinese nuclear forces, 2015". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 71 (4): 77. Bibcode:2015BuAtS..71d..77K. doi:10.1177/0096340215591247. S2CID 145759562.
  51. ^ "Measuring the Size of an Earthquake". U.S. Geological Survey. September 1, 2009. Archived from the original on September 1, 2009. Retrieved January 17, 2010.
  52. ^ "Table-Top Earthquakes". December 7, 2022. Archived from the original on December 7, 2022. Retrieved February 10, 2023.
  53. ^ "Hurricane FAQ – NOAA's Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory". Retrieved March 21, 2022.
  54. ^ Klemetti, Erik (April 2022). "Tambora 1815: Just How Big Was The Eruption?". Wired. Retrieved June 7, 2022.
  55. ^ Evans, Robert (July 2002). "Blast from the Past". Smithsonian Magazine.
  56. ^ "La Garita Mountains grew from volcanic explosions 35 million years ago". US Forest Service. August 25, 2021. Retrieved April 23, 2022.
  57. ^ "The thought experiment: What would happen if the supervolcano under Yellowstone erupted?". BBC Science Focus Magazine. Retrieved April 23, 2022.
  58. ^ "Comet/Jupiter Collision FAQ – Post-Impact". www.physics.sfasu.edu. Archived from the original on August 28, 2021. Retrieved February 24, 2022.
  59. ^ a b Richards, Mark A.; Alvarez, Walter; Self, Stephen; Karlstrom, Leif; Renne, Paul R.; Manga, Michael; Sprain, Courtney J.; Smit, Jan; Vanderkluysen, Loÿc; Gibson, Sally A. (November 1, 2015). "Triggering of the largest Deccan eruptions by the Chicxulub impact". Geological Society of America Bulletin. 127 (11–12): 1507–1520. Bibcode:2015GSAB..127.1507R. doi:10.1130/B31167.1. ISSN 0016-7606. S2CID 3463018.
  60. ^ Jablonski, David; Chaloner, William Gilbert; Lawton, John Hartley; May, Robert McCredie (April 29, 1994). "Extinctions in the fossil record". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences. 344 (1307): 11–17. doi:10.1098/rstb.1994.0045.
  61. ^ Kornei, Katherine (December 20, 2018). "Huge Global Tsunami Followed Dinosaur-Killing Asteroid Impact". Eos. Retrieved March 21, 2022.
  62. ^ "Chicxulub Impact Event". www.lpi.usra.edu. Retrieved April 23, 2022.
  63. ^ Henehan, Michael J.; Ridgwell, Andy; Thomas, Ellen; Zhang, Shuang; Alegret, Laia; Schmidt, Daniela N.; Rae, James W. B.; Witts, James D.; Landman, Neil H.; Greene, Sarah E.; Huber, Brian T. (October 21, 2019). "Rapid ocean acidification and protracted Earth system recovery followed the end-Cretaceous Chicxulub impact". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 116 (45): 22500–22504. Bibcode:2019PNAS..11622500H. doi:10.1073/pnas.1905989116. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 6842625. PMID 31636204.
  64. ^ Nield, David (October 22, 2019). "That Dinosaur-Killing Asteroid Instantly Acidified Our World's Oceans, Too". ScienceAlert. Retrieved April 23, 2022.
  65. ^ Zahnle, K. J. (August 26, 2018). "Climatic Effect of Impacts on the Ocean". Comparative Climatology of Terrestrial Planets III: From Stars to Surfaces. 2065: 2056. Bibcode:2018LPICo2065.2056Z.
  66. ^ Carroll, Carroll (2017). "Sun: Amount of Energy the Earth Gets from the Sun". Ask a Physicist. Archived from the original on August 16, 2000.
  67. ^ Lü, Jiangning; Sun, Youshun; Nafi Toksöz, M.; Zheng, Yingcai; Zuber, Maria T. (December 1, 2011). "Seismic effects of the Caloris basin impact, Mercury". Planetary and Space Science. 59 (15): 1981–1991. Bibcode:2011P&SS...59.1981L. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2011.07.013. hdl:1721.1/69472. ISSN 0032-0633.
  68. ^ Luzum, Brian; Capitaine, Nicole; Fienga, Agnès; Folkner, William; Fukushima, Toshio; Hilton, James; Hohenkerk, Catherine; Krasinsky, George; Petit, Gérard; Pitjeva, Elena; Soffel, Michael (July 10, 2011). "The IAU 2009 system of astronomical constants: the report of the IAU working group on numerical standards for Fundamental Astronomy". Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy. 110 (4): 293. Bibcode:2011CeMDA.110..293L. doi:10.1007/s10569-011-9352-4. ISSN 1572-9478. S2CID 122755461.
  69. ^ "Ask A Physicist: Sun". Cosmic Helospheric Learning Center. August 16, 2000. Archived from the original on August 16, 2000. Retrieved February 23, 2022.
  70. ^ "Sun Fact Sheet". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved March 22, 2022.
  71. ^ Khokhlov, A.; Mueller, E.; Hoeflich, P. (March 1, 1993). "Light curves of type IA supernova models with different explosion mechanisms". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 270: 223–248. Bibcode:1993A&A...270..223K. ISSN 0004-6361.
  72. ^ Maselli, A.; Melandri, A.; Nava, L.; Mundell, C. G.; Kawai, N.; Campana, S.; Covino, S.; Cummings, J. R.; Cusumano, G.; Evans, P. A.; Ghirlanda, G.; Ghisellini, G.; Guidorzi, C.; Kobayashi, S.; Kuin, P.; LaParola, V.; Mangano, V.; Oates, S.; Sakamoto, T.; Serino, M.; Virgili, F.; Zhang, B.- B.; Barthelmy, S.; Beardmore, A.; Bernardini, M. G.; Bersier, D.; Burrows, D.; Calderone, G.; Capalbi, M.; Chiang, J. (2014). "GRB 130427A: A Nearby Ordinary Monster". Science. 343 (6166): 48–51. arXiv:1311.5254. Bibcode:2014Sci...343...48M. doi:10.1126/science.1242279. PMID 24263134. S2CID 9782862.
  73. ^ The LIGO Scientific Collaboration; the Virgo Collaboration; Abbott, B. P.; Abbott, R.; Abbott, T. D.; Abernathy, M. R.; Acernese, F.; Ackley, K.; Adams, C. (June 14, 2016). "Properties of the Binary Black Hole Merger GW150914". Physical Review Letters. 116 (24): 241102. arXiv:1602.03840. Bibcode:2016PhRvL.116x1102A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.241102. ISSN 0031-9007. PMID 27367378. S2CID 217406416.
  74. ^ "Big Bang Energy (Ask an Astrophysicist)". Imagine the Universe!. February 11, 1998. Archived from the original on August 19, 2014. Retrieved March 23, 2022.
  75. ^ US Army FM 3–34.214: Explosives and Demolition, 2007, page 1–2.
  76. ^ Török, Zoltán; Ozunu, Alexandru (2015). "Hazardous properties of ammonium nitrate and modeling of explosions using TNT equivalency". Environmental Engineering & Management Journal. 14 (11): 2671–2678. doi:10.30638/eemj.2015.284.
  77. ^ Queensland Government. "Storage requirements for security sensitive ammonium nitrate (SSAN)". Archived from the original on October 22, 2020. Retrieved August 24, 2020.
  78. ^ "Whitehall Paraindistries". Archived from the original on February 10, 2017. Retrieved March 31, 2017.
  79. ^ "FM 5–250" (PDF). bits.de. United States Department of the Army. Archived (PDF) from the original on August 5, 2020. Retrieved October 23, 2019.
  80. ^ PubChem. "Medina". pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved May 20, 2024.
  81. ^ "methylenedinitramine | CH4N4O4 | ChemSpider". www.chemspider.com. Retrieved May 20, 2024.
  82. ^ "Ripple" (PNG).
  83. ^ "Postulated Ripple design (Dominic Housatonic)" (PNG).
  84. ^ "Nuclear weapon design", Wikipedia, May 28, 2024, retrieved July 7, 2024
[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=TNT_equivalent&oldid=1256353040"